The Peloponnesian War was a defining moment in ancient Greek history, involving the city-states of Athens and Sparta. Spanning from 431 to 405 B.C.E., this conflict led to a significant power shift, with Sparta emerging as the dominant city-state. The war was characterized by two distinct phases of combat, separated by a truce lasting six years.
Causes of the war
Prior to the war, Athens had risen to prominence as a major Mediterranean power. This rise began with the formation of the Delian League in 478 B.C. This alliance brought several Greek city-states together under Athens to defend against possible Persian attacks. However, this alliance also boosted Athens’ power and influence. Athens exerted control over numerous city-states, turning former allies into tribute-paying subjects. The funds from these tributes supported a formidable navy and extensive public works in Athens, which contributed to growing resentment among other Greek states. Tensions between Athens and the Peloponnesian states, including Sparta, began early. After the Persian departure, Sparta had attempted to prevent Athens from rebuilding its defensive walls, which Athens rejected. Although Sparta took no immediate action, it harbored grievances. In 465 BC, during a helot revolt in Sparta, Athens was summoned to assist but was dismissed, which led to strained relations and Athens severing its alliance with Sparta. Tensions escalated significantly when Corinth, aligned with Sparta, clashed directly with Athens due to disputes over interests near Corcyra. Corinth's actions ultimately drew Sparta into a wider confrontation, initiating a series of Spartan raids on territories allied with Athens, particularly in the area of Attica.
The first phase
Early tensions between Athens and Sparta were evident even before the outbreak of the First Peloponnesian War. Athens faced resistance when Sparta attempted to prevent the reconstruction of its defensive walls, which Athens had begun rebuilding after the Persian Wars. Additionally, Athens felt slighted when Sparta rejected its offer of support during a helot revolt in Sparta, signaling growing mistrust between the two powers. The First Peloponnesian War (459–446 BC) marked the beginning of direct conflict between Athens and Sparta, with Athens fighting against Sparta and its allies. This war concluded with the Thirty Years' Peace in 446 BC, which briefly stabilized relations between the two city-states but failed to address the underlying tensions. The peace was first challenged in 440 BC when the island of Samos, an ally of Athens, rebelled. Athens responded with a military campaign to suppress the revolt. Although Sparta considered intervening, particularly under the influence of its ally Corinth, the potential for intervention was thwarted by internal disagreements among the Spartans' allies. The conflict saw Corinth building a powerful naval alliance after suffering a defeat at the hands of the independent naval power Corcyra. Corcyra, seeking protection from Corinthian aggression, formed an alliance with Athens. This alliance intensified the hostilities and set the stage for the larger conflict known as the Peloponnesian War.
The second phase
The first decade of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), often referred to as the Archidamian War after Spartan King Archidamus II, was characterized by strategic maneuvers rather than decisive battles. Sparta aimed to liberate the Greek states under Athenian influence by dismantling Athens' defensive structures. Athenian leader Pericles adopted a strategy of avoiding direct land battles with Sparta and instead focused on naval superiority and conducting maritime raids. The war's course was further complicated by a devastating plague that struck Athens in 430 BC, causing massive casualties and weakening the city's capacity to sustain prolonged conflict. Pericles' death in 429 BC led to a shift in Athenian strategy toward more aggressive actions. In 423 BC, a temporary respite was achieved with the signing of the Peace of Nicias, named after Athenian general Nicias, who played a key role in negotiating the treaty. This agreement aimed for mutual defense and was intended to last 50 years, but it was short-lived, collapsing after just six years due to renewed hostilities. The conflict flared up again with Athens' ill-fated expedition to Sicily (415-413 BC), which severely drained Athenian resources and contributed to the resurgence of hostilities. In response, Sparta built a formidable fleet of warships, bolstering its naval capabilities significantly. The war reached its climax during the Second Peloponnesian War (413-404 BC), culminating in a decisive victory for the Spartans. Spartan general Lysander achieved a critical victory at the Battle of Aegospotami in 405 BC, effectively cutting off Athenian naval supply lines and leading to Athens' surrender in 404 BC. After the war, Athens was forced to dismantle its defensive walls, disband its fleet, and relinquish its overseas territories. Despite these severe losses, Athens was spared from complete destruction. It was incorporated into the Spartan system with a degree of autonomy but under significant Spartan influence, marking the end of the Peloponnesian War and a shift in the balance of power in ancient Greece.
Impact and legacy
The end of the Peloponnesian War marked a significant turning point, signaling the conclusion of Greece's golden age. With Sparta emerging as the leading power, the war’s outcome profoundly influenced the future trajectory of Greek history. Athens was absorbed into the Spartan Empire, initially under a series of tyrants and later under a democracy. The balance of power in Greece shifted to Sparta until both Athens and Sparta were conquered and integrated into the kingdom of Macedon less than a century later. In a symbolic gesture of reconciliation, Athens and Sparta signed a peace treaty on March 12, 1996, marking 2,500 years since the end of their conflict.
Test your knowledge
What sparked the beginning of the First Peloponnesian War?
