The Hundred Years' War was a prolonged conflict between England and France, spanning from 1337 to 1453, though it was not fought continuously throughout this period. The war originated from feudal disputes and claims to the French throne, notably after English King Edward III asserted his claim in 1338, which was contested by French King Philip VI. This conflict featured intermittent fighting and periods of peace. Initially, England secured significant victories, including the battles of Crécy and Poitiers. However, French King Charles V eventually began reclaiming lost territories. A temporary truce followed the marriage of Richard II of England to Charles VI’s daughter, but the war resumed with notable battles such as Agincourt, where Henry V of England emerged victorious. Despite these victories, Henry V’s early death and the weak rule of his successor, Henry VI, allowed Charles VII of France to regain momentum, aided by figures like Joan of Arc. Ultimately, the French secured victory, regaining control over almost all of France, except Calais. The war is traditionally divided into three main phases: the Edwardian War (1337-1360), the Caroline War (1369-1389), and the Lancastrian War (1415-1453).
Causes of the war
The Hundred Years' War was sparked by a complex mix of factors that evolved over its duration. At its core were deep-seated territorial and dynastic disputes. The immediate cause was Philip VI of France's seizure of Guyenne (Aquitaine) in 1337, prompting Edward III of England to assert his claim to the French throne, rooted in his mother’s lineage as the sister of the deceased French King Charles IV. The French nobility supported Philip VI, igniting the conflict. The origins can be traced back to political relationships during the reigns of previous monarchs. The first English king with claims to French territories was William the Conqueror, both King of England and a vassal of the French king. This arrangement caused unease among French rulers, especially as Henry II of England expanded his dominions through marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine. This expansion led to a prolonged struggle until the Treaty of Paris in 1259, which left English control over a reduced Guyenne. The disputes over Guyenne were exacerbated by frequent French interventions and English resistance to acknowledging French influence. The war’s roots were also in broader political ambitions: Edward III’s ambition to expand English territories and the French kings’ desire to reclaim their territories and remove English influence. Internal problems within France, like the madness of Charles VI and the nobility infighting, also played a role in prolonging and intensifying the war. Broader economic and social crises of 14th-century Europe, including famines and the Black Death, heightened the importance of controlling economically significant regions like Guyenne and Flanders. The war fostered nationalism and led to significant changes in military organization, transitioning from feudal armies to professional troops.
The Edwardian War (1337-1360)
The Hundred Years’ War began in 1337, shaped by Edward III of England's ambitions and the political complexities between England and France. This initial phase, the Edwardian War, was driven by Edward’s claim to the French throne through his mother, Isabella. Although his claim had historical basis, it was primarily a pretext for broader goals. The conflict’s roots lay in Edward’s refusal to acknowledge Philip VI of France as his superior, leading to the confiscation of the English-held duchy of Aquitaine. Hostilities began with naval skirmishes, evolving into significant battles as Edward forged alliances with European rulers. Edward’s early actions included the siege of Cambrai and naval victories like the Battle of Sluys in 1340, securing English control over crucial supply lines. Despite pauses in fighting, such as the Truce of Espléchin, Edward’s aggressive campaigns continued. The conflict intensified with English invasions of Brittany and Normandy. Notably, Edward’s forces, including his son Edward the Black Prince, achieved significant victories at Crécy in 1346 and Poitiers in 1356. These successes demonstrated the effectiveness of English tactics, particularly their use of archers, and led to the capture of French King John II. The Treaty of Brétigny in 1360 temporarily resolved the conflict, granting England substantial territories in France in exchange for Edward renouncing his claim to the French throne. The treaty’s provisions were short-lived as political turbulence and ongoing hostilities resumed. The Black Death further complicated matters, leading to intermittent truces and renewed fighting. The early phase of the Hundred Years’ War was defined by territorial ambitions, dynastic claims, and shifting alliances, setting the stage for continued conflict.
The Caroline War (1369-1389)
Following the Treaty of Brétigny in 1360, which marked a temporary end to hostilities, Charles V of France, known as Charles the Wise, resumed the war in 1369. This conflict, the Caroline War, was characterized by Charles V’s strategic avoidance of direct confrontation, focusing instead on harassing English forces and using superior naval capabilities for raids along the English coast. By 1372, Charles V had reclaimed most of Aquitaine, with an English fleet defeated off La Rochelle. By 1375, English holdings were limited to Calais and a small part of Gascony. A truce in 1389, further solidified by Richard II of England's marriage to Isabella of France in 1396, lasted about two decades. However, internal strife in England, including the Peasants’ Revolt and political instability, shifted focus away from the conflict with France. In France, Charles VI’s reign was marked by significant internal conflict. The king’s mental instability led to power struggles between the Burgundians and Armagnacs, engaged in a bitter civil war. The assassination of the Duke of Orléans in 1407 by the Burgundian faction escalated internal strife. Despite these challenges, both English and French factions sought advantage, with Henry IV’s support to allies in France limited due to his own political issues. The civil war in France and the complex political landscape influenced the course of the Hundred Years' War, with intermittent truces and shifting alliances until the war resumed in earnest in 1415.
The Lancastrian War (1415-1453)
The Lancastrian War, the third phase of the Hundred Years' War, was a period of intense conflict between England and France from 1415 to 1453. This era saw the rise of Henry V of England, who sought to reclaim territories and establish an empire in France. Henry V’s ambitions were fueled by internal strife within the French monarchy, as King Charles VI's madness created a power vacuum that divided the French nobility between the Armagnacs and Burgundians. Henry V capitalized on this division, launching a decisive invasion of Normandy in 1415. He captured Harfleur and secured a significant victory at the Battle of Agincourt, decimating the French nobility. By 1419, Henry V had extended his conquest to include all of Normandy, including Rouen. The Treaty of Troyes in 1420 solidified his position, recognizing him as regent and heir to the French throne and marrying him to Catherine of Valois, Charles VI’s daughter. The tide turned after Henry V’s death in 1422 and the rise of Charles VII, the disinherited Dauphin. The French revival was dramatically spurred by Joan of Arc, a peasant girl inspired by divine visions, who lifted the siege of Orléans in 1429 and paved the way for Charles VII's coronation at Reims. This resurgence included significant French victories like the Battle of Patay. Despite England’s efforts, including the crowning of Henry VI as king of France in Paris in 1431, momentum shifted in favor of the French. England faced setbacks with the loss of Burgundian support in 1435 through the Treaty of Arras, and by 1449, Charles VII initiated the reconquest of Normandy. The Battle of Formigny in 1450 and the recapture of Gascony culminated in the decisive French victory at the Battle of Castillon in 1453. The end of the Lancastrian War left England in possession of only Calais. Though no formal peace treaty was signed, the Truce of Picquigny in 1475 effectively marked the cessation of hostilities. The war's conclusion saw the consolidation of French territories and the strengthening of the French monarchy, while England grappled with internal strife, financial strain, and the dawn of the Wars of the Roses. Joan of Arc emerged as a national heroine, later canonized as a saint, symbolizing French spirit and resilience.
Consequences of the war
The war had significant consequences. Militarily, it caused immense loss of life and destabilized the French nobility, while England’s expanded nobility brought the country close to bankruptcy. Heavy taxation led to uprisings like the Peasants’ Revolt of 1381, and the diversion of church taxes spurred a shift toward more national churches. The defeat undermined the English monarchy, contributing to the Wars of the Roses. The war spurred advancements in military technology and necessitated stronger fortifications. By its end, France had its first permanent royal army under Charles VII. Positively, the conflict led to centralization of governance, bureaucratic efficiency, and a structured tax system. In England, Parliament’s role in tax approval strengthened its identity, later curbing monarchical power. The war also fostered professional diplomacy and celebrated heroes like Joan of Arc and Henry V, reinforcing national pride.
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