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The Sino-Japanese War

Origins and background

The First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) was a pivotal conflict between the Qing Dynasty of China and the Empire of Japan, primarily over control of Korea, a region both nations deemed strategically important. The war, which lasted from July 25, 1894, to April 17, 1895, revealed the Qing Dynasty’s failures in military modernization compared to Japan's successful Meiji Restoration, marking a significant shift in regional power from China to Japan and severely undermining Qing prestige. Japan emerged from isolation with the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854 and pursued the Meiji Restoration in 1868 to modernize and centralize. In contrast, the Qing Dynasty struggled with modernization efforts. As Japan's modernization progressed, it increasingly saw Korea as a key to expanding its influence in East Asia. Korea, under the Joseon Dynasty, faced pressures from Western powers and had to navigate relations with both China and Japan. The Ganghwa Treaty of February 26, 1876, marked a turning point as it opened Korea to Japanese trade, setting the stage for rising tensions. Despite King Gojong's efforts to modernize Korea while preserving traditional values, internal and external pressures hampered progress. Tensions between Japan and China over Korea grew throughout the 1880s, particularly after the Imo Incident of 1882 and the Gapsin Coup of 1884. The Imo Incident of 1882, driven by food shortages and dissatisfaction among Korean soldiers, led to violence against the Japanese legation in Seoul. Japan's military response included the Treaty of Chemulpo, allowing Japanese troops to be stationed in Korea. Korean political factions complicated matters further, with the Enlightenment Party favoring modernization and Japanese influence clashing with conservative factions aligned with China. The Gapsin Coup of December 1884, backed by the Enlightenment Party, was quickly suppressed by Chinese forces, escalating tensions between Japan and China. By the late 19th century, Japan increasingly relied on Korean resources and anti-Chinese sentiment in Japan rose, fueled by incidents like the Nagasaki riot in 1886. Korea's internal issues, including corruption and economic difficulties, contributed to unrest, exemplified by the Donghak Peasant Rebellion of 1894. This rebellion, driven by dissatisfaction with the Korean government and foreign influence, escalated the crisis. Both Japan and China saw Korea as crucial for their regional dominance, leading to heightened conflict. Japan's decisive military victories, including the capture of Weihaiwei, highlighted the Qing Dynasty's inability to maintain its influence in Korea and East Asia.

Outbreak of the war

In April 1894, the Donghak Rebellion, led by peasants dissatisfied with oppressive taxation and governance, began to threaten Korean stability. In response, China and Japan prepared for military intervention. By May 1894, Korea requested Chinese assistance, prompting China to dispatch troops, which Japan used as a pretext for intervention. On June 2, Japan resolved to send troops if China did, deploying forces on June 9. Japan accused China of breaching the Convention of Tientsin, while China claimed Japan had implicitly consented to Chinese intervention. Tensions escalated, and on June 5, Chinese troops landed at Asan. Although the Donghak Rebellion ended on June 11 with the Treaty of Jeonju, both Japan and China continued to station troops in Korea, leading to a diplomatic standoff. Japan proposed joint reforms in Korea, which China rejected, insisting on a simultaneous withdrawal of troops. By mid-July, Japan demanded the withdrawal of Chinese troops and the abrogation of past treaties, leading Japan to overthrow the Korean government. On July 23, Japanese troops stormed Gyeongbokgung Palace, captured King Gojong, and established a new government under the Heungseong Daewongun, marking the beginning of open conflict between Japan and China. On July 25, Japanese forces intercepted and sank the Chinese merchant ship Kowshing, leading to the Battle of Pungdo, one of the first direct confrontations. The Japanese attacked Chinese positions at Seonghwan on July 29, marking the first significant land battle. Japan declared war on China on August 1, 1894, with China reciprocating. The Japanese-Korean Alliance was signed on August 26, solidifying their cooperation against China and establishing Japanese dominance in Korean affairs.

Course of the war

In July 1894, intense military engagements defined the strategic landscape of the First Sino-Japanese War. By late July, the Japanese had gained a significant upper hand, with their forces considerably outnumbering the Chinese troops stationed in Korea. The Chinese military’s supply lines were heavily reliant on sea routes through Asan Bay, making their position increasingly precarious. Japan’s strategy centered on establishing naval dominance to blockade Chinese forces at Asan, followed by a coordinated land assault. The Japanese Fifth Division landed at Chemulpo on Korea's western coast, advanced northwest, and drew the Chinese Beiyang Fleet into a decisive naval confrontation in the Yellow Sea. The Japanese aimed to either decisively end the war with a naval victory or, if necessary, focus on occupying Korea. On July 25, Japanese cruisers Yoshino, Naniwa, and Akitsushima engaged Chinese forces off Asan Bay, attacking the Chinese cruiser Tsi-yuan and gunboat Kwang-yi, leading to the grounding and explosion of the Kwang-yi. Additionally, Japanese forces intercepted the Kowshing, a British merchant vessel chartered by the Qing government to transport troops and supplies. Despite diplomatic tensions, the Kowshing was sunk after failed torpedo attacks, a move that nearly triggered a diplomatic crisis between Japan and Britain but was ultimately justified under international law. Some survivors were rescued by Japanese and allied ships. Meanwhile, Major-General Ōshima Yoshimasa led Japanese troops to confront Chinese forces at Seonghwan, defeating them in the battle of July 27-28 and capturing Asan. On August 1, Japan officially declared war. Following early victories, the Japanese focused on Pyongyang, which fell on September 16 after a prolonged siege. The Beiyang Fleet was defeated by the Japanese Combined Fleet on September 17, ensuring Japanese control of the Yellow Sea. With Pyongyang secured, Japan turned its attention to capturing key Chinese naval bases, including Port Arthur and Weihaiwei, and advancing into Manchuria. The Chinese, having abandoned northern Korea, fortified their positions along the Yalu River. The Japanese First Army crossed the river and captured significant positions, including Fenghuangcheng. By November 21, 1894, the Japanese had captured Lüshunkou (Port Arthur) with minimal resistance, although the Port Arthur Massacre, where Japanese troops committed atrocities, drew international skepticism. The capture of Weihaiwei on February 12, 1895, signaled the end of major naval resistance, leading to Japanese control over southern Manchuria and northern China. In preparation for peace negotiations, Japan began planning an invasion of Taiwan, starting with the Pescadores Islands on March 23, 1895. The swift capture of the Pescadores Islands effectively prevented Chinese reinforcements from reaching Taiwan and strengthened Japan’s position in the upcoming peace talks. During the same period, the Donghak Peasant Rebellion, which initially spurred the conflict, was effectively crushed. Following the Treaty of Jeonju on June 11, 1894, which ended the initial phase of the rebellion, renewed clashes occurred due to the Korean government's collaboration with Japan. Japanese forces, reinforced and allied with Korean government troops, decisively defeated the Peasant Army by November, leading to the rebellion's suppression by the end of the year.

Towards peace

The Treaty of Shimonoseki, signed on April 17, 1895, formally ended the First Sino-Japanese War. It marked Japan's rise as a major Asian power and had significant regional implications. The treaty's origins lay in escalating conflicts, with Japan occupying strategic locations. By late October 1894, Japanese forces had threatened Beijing. The fall of Jinzhou on November 6 prompted Li Hongzhang to seek peace. Gustav Detring's mission to Japan was rejected due to lack of credentials, but American mediation led to talks in January 1895. Despite negotiation challenges, Japan continued its advances. The capture of Port Arthur on November 21, 1894, and Weihaiwei on February 2, 1895, further weakened China. Peace negotiations began in Shimonoseki in March 1895, with Li Hongzhang leading the Chinese delegation. The treaty required China to recognize Korea's independence, cede Taiwan, the Penghu Islands, and the Liaodong Peninsula to Japan, and pay a large indemnity. China also opened ports to Japanese trade. International criticism, particularly regarding the Liaodong Peninsula, led to the Triple Intervention by Germany, Russia, and France on April 23, 1895. This intervention pressured Japan to relinquish the Liaodong Peninsula, which Japan agreed to return on November 18, 1895, in exchange for a financial indemnity. This intervention paved the way for further territorial acquisitions by European powers in China and set the stage for future conflicts.

Fighting in Taiwan

The Treaty of Shimonoseki’s cession of Taiwan to Japan faced strong resistance. Qing officials declared Taiwan an independent Republic of Formosa on May 23, 1895. Japanese forces, landing in northern Taiwan on May 29 under Admiral Kabayama Sukenori, faced intense battles against the Republic's military. The Japanese invasion began with the capture of the Pescadores Islands on March 23, 1895. Following this, Japanese forces landed in Taiwan and began their campaign to suppress the resistance. They captured Keelung on June 5 and entered Taipei on June 6. The Republic's leaders fled to the Chinese mainland, leaving Liu Yung-fu to continue resistance from Tainan. After capturing Hsinchu on June 25 and facing heavy fighting at Changhua on August 29, the Japanese advanced south. The final assault on Tainan began on October 10, with Japanese forces entering the city on October 21 after Liu Yung-fu's escape. By November 18, Taiwan was fully pacified under Japanese rule.

Aftermath

Japan's victory in the First Sino-Japanese War demonstrated its modernization and effective military organization, establishing its dominance over Taiwan, the Pescadores, and the Liaodong Peninsula. This marked Japan's emergence as a major Asian power. China’s defeat exposed weaknesses in the Qing Dynasty, intensifying nationalist sentiment and unrest, leading to events like the Boxer Rebellion. Japan, pressured by Russia and other European powers, ceded the Liaodong Peninsula but increased its regional influence. Rising tensions between Japan and Russia over territorial interests eventually led to the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905). Japan's 1902 alliance with Britain aimed to safeguard its interests and prevent European intervention, further reshaping regional power dynamics.

Test your knowledge

What was the main reason for the conflict between China and Japan in the First Sino-Japanese War?

3

When did Japan officially declare war on China during the First Sino-Japanese War?

2

Which naval battle was significant in demonstrating Japan's naval superiority early in the First Sino-Japanese War?

3

What was the outcome of the Treaty of Shimonoseki for China?

1

When did Japan fully pacify Taiwan under its rule?

2

References

The National Archives

Wikipedia

Japan Center for Asian Historical Records