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The First Italo-Ethiopian War

Background

The First Italo-Ethiopian War, fought from 1895 to 1896, was a conflict between Italy and Ethiopia rooted in a controversial treaty and Italy's imperial ambitions in Africa. After the Treaty of Wuchale was signed in 1889, discrepancies between its Italian and Amharic versions created tensions. The Italian version implied Ethiopia had become an Italian protectorate, while the Amharic text suggested Ethiopia retained autonomy in foreign relations. When Emperor Menelik II realized Italy’s intentions, he rejected the treaty, prompting Italy to attempt control over Ethiopia by force. Italy, a newly unified state seeking to bolster its status among European powers, viewed colonial expansion as a solution to its internal economic struggles and demographic pressures. Its focus turned to Africa, where it aimed to establish colonies. Italy's early efforts in the region included taking over Eritrea and seeking influence in Ethiopia by exploiting internal rivalries. Italy's expansion was initially supported by Britain, which sought to counter French influence in the region. However, Italy's ambitions clashed with Ethiopia’s determination to remain independent. The war began with Italy's invasion of Tigray in 1895, with Italian forces expecting support from Ethiopian factions dissatisfied with Menelik's rule. However, Ethiopian nobility united behind Menelik, rallying against the Italian invasion. This unity was crucial to Ethiopia’s resistance. Menelik had spent years strengthening his military with modern weaponry acquired through various foreign deals, including with Russia and even Italy. By 1896, Ethiopia had amassed a well-equipped army capable of challenging the Italian forces.

Course of the war

In December 1894, Bahta Hagos, a local leader in Akkele Guzay, led a rebellion against the Italian colonial forces in Eritrea, claiming allegiance to Ras Mengesha Yohannes, the governor of Tigray and son of the late Emperor Yohannes IV. However, Major Pietro Toselli, serving under General Oreste Baratieri, the Italian commander in Eritrea, swiftly crushed the rebellion, and Bahta was killed at the Battle of Halai. Suspecting that Ras Mengesha would attempt to invade Eritrea, Baratieri confronted him at the Battle of Coatit in January 1895. After emerging victorious, the Italians pursued Mengesha, defeating him again at the Battle of Senafe. Following these successes, Baratieri's forces marched into Adigrat on March 8, 1895, and subsequently occupied Adwa on April 2. Declaring the annexation of Tigray province into Italian Eritrea, Baratieri fortified the town of Mekelle. As the situation intensified, Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia, who had united much of the country under his rule, sought an alliance with France. However, the French, seeking to secure control of Tunisia through the Treaty of Bardo, abandoned Menelik to appease the Italians. Isolated, Menelik issued a call to arms on September 17, 1895, summoning the men of Shewa and other Ethiopian regions to defend the country. By December 1895, Menelik had gathered a massive force of over 100,000 troops, ready to confront the Italian invaders. The first major clash between the two forces occurred on December 7, 1895, at Amba Alagi, a mountain fortress in southern Tigray. Ras Makonnen, Menelik's cousin and a key general in the Ethiopian army, led the attack alongside Ras Mengesha Yohannes and another prominent Ethiopian leader, Welle Betul. Together, they overwhelmed the Italian positions, killing Major Toselli and most of his men. General Giuseppe Arimondi, who had arrived too late to save Toselli, retreated with the survivors to the town of Mekelle, where he left a small garrison under the command of Major Giuseppe Galliano before withdrawing to Adigrat to join Baratieri. By December 18, Ras Makonnen's forces had surrounded the fort at Mekelle. As the siege began, Emperor Menelik II, accompanied by his wife, Queen Taytu Betul, arrived in the area on January 6, 1896, to join the effort. Despite several attempts by the Ethiopians to storm the fort, the Italian defenders held out until January 21, when their water supply was cut off. With permission from the Italian high command, Major Galliano surrendered. In a gesture of magnanimity, Menelik allowed the Italians to leave Mekelle with their weapons and even provided them with mules and pack animals to rejoin Baratieri's forces. Some historians interpret this as a sign that Menelik still hoped for a peaceful resolution, while others suggest it was a strategic move to position his forces near Adwa, bypassing Italian defenses. As Menelik’s forces continued to grow, General Baratieri hesitated to engage the Ethiopian army, hoping to delay until Menelik’s troops were forced to disperse due to supply shortages. However, Francesco Crispi, the Italian Prime Minister, frustrated by the lack of progress, pressured Baratieri to take decisive action. On February 28, 1896, Crispi sent a stern telegram demanding that Baratieri formulate a plan to restore the honor of the Italian army and protect the prestige of the monarchy. Under pressure, Baratieri ordered an attack, leading to the Battle of Adwa on March 1, 1896.

The battle of Adwa

The Italian forces, numbering around 17,700 men and organized into four brigades, faced an Ethiopian army that was estimated to be between 73,000 and 120,000 strong. Menelik had ensured that his troops were well-armed, with modern rifles and artillery, which were superior to the Italian equipment. As the Italians advanced over the challenging terrain, their brigades became separated and vulnerable. Menelik, who had been alerted to the Italian movements, ordered his forces to launch a series of coordinated attacks. The Ethiopian army, under the leadership of Menelik and his commanders, hit the Italians with successive waves of assaults. The Italian brigades were overwhelmed one by one, leading to a devastating defeat. By noon, the surviving Italian forces were in full retreat. Italian casualties were severe, with estimates ranging from 5,900 to 6,133 killed, alongside thousands of wounded and captured. The retreating Italians abandoned their artillery, rifles, and most of their supplies, further weakening their position. While many Italian prisoners were treated relatively well, the Eritrean askaris—local soldiers who had fought alongside the Italians—were viewed as traitors by the Ethiopians and faced brutal reprisals, including amputations and castrations. The battle marked a complete defeat for Italy, with Menelik's forces not only intact but also strengthened by the captured Italian weapons and equipment.

Aftermath and legacy

The Battle of Adwa in 1896 was a pivotal moment in African and European history, marking a rare instance where an African nation decisively defeated a European power during the Scramble for Africa. Following the battle, Italy was thrown into turmoil, with riots breaking out and Prime Minister Francesco Crispi resigning due to public outrage over the failed colonial campaign. Menelik II of Ethiopia capitalized on his victory by securing the Treaty of Addis Ababa, forcing Italy to recognize Ethiopian independence and delineating Eritrea's borders. The Italian defeat at Adwa had wide-reaching consequences. European powers, including Russia, France, and Britain, quickly adjusted their diplomatic relations with Ethiopia. Russia's prestige grew due to its support for Ethiopia, while France signed a treaty of alliance with Menelik. Concerned about French influence, Britain also secured a treaty with Ethiopia in 1897, ensuring that Menelik would not support the Mahdist forces in Sudan. Adwa's impact extended beyond Ethiopia, challenging the era's racial hierarchies and inspiring the Black diaspora and Pan-African movement. Ethiopia's victory made it a symbol of resistance against colonialism, and Menelik became a global figure. Despite this success, unresolved border issues from the Treaty of Addis Ababa later contributed to the Eritrean-Ethiopian War (1998-2000), showing the long-lasting effects of the battle. Ethiopia's victory in 1896 also left a deep scar in Italy, leading to calls for revenge. This sentiment fueled Benito Mussolini's invasion of Ethiopia in 1935, framing it as an opportunity to avenge the earlier defeat. Despite these later conflicts, Adwa remains a landmark event, symbolizing Ethiopia's resilience and independence in the face of European colonialism.

Test your knowledge

Which event marked the beginning of the First Italo-Ethiopian War?

1

What was the outcome of the Battle of Adwa?

3

Who led the Ethiopian attack at the Battle of Amba Alagi?

1

What was a significant impact of the Battle of Adwa on Italy?

3

What was the main outcome of the Treaty of Addis Ababa?

2

References

New World Encyclopedia

The Collector

Wikipedia