The Boxer Rebellion, occurring between 1899 and 1901, was a significant anti-foreign and anti-imperialist uprising in northern China. It was led by a secretive Chinese group known as the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists, commonly referred to as the "Boxers" by Westerners due to their practice of martial arts, which they believed made them invincible to bullets and other weapons. This rebellion took place during the late Qing dynasty, a period when China faced increasing foreign domination and influence, particularly from Western powers and Japan. The origins of the rebellion can be traced to widespread dissatisfaction with the Qing dynasty's concessions to foreign powers, which had severely impacted China's economy and sovereignty. The defeats in the Opium Wars and the First Sino-Japanese War had exposed China’s military weaknesses, leading to the loss of territory and economic control. These humiliations fueled anti-foreign sentiment, especially in northern provinces like Shandong, which had also been devastated by natural disasters such as floods and droughts. These calamities further worsened the economic struggles of the local peasantry, who increasingly blamed foreign interference for their suffering. By the late 1890s, the Boxers began taking violent action against foreign influence in China, initially targeting Christian missionaries and Chinese converts, whom they viewed as collaborators with foreign powers. The movement gained momentum in 1899, spreading across northern China and attacking foreign property, including railroads and churches, under the slogan "Support the Qing government and exterminate the foreigners."
The uprising
The Boxer Rebellion erupted in 1900, escalating into a significant conflict involving both Chinese and foreign powers. Initially rooted in anti-foreign sentiment, the movement intensified in northern China, where Boxers attacked Chinese Christians, missionaries, and foreign properties. On June 20, the violence culminated in a siege of the Beijing Legation Quarter, where foreign diplomats and their families were trapped. Empress Dowager Cixi, under pressure from conservative factions and feeling her rule was threatened, sided with the Boxers and reluctantly declared war on foreign nations, further escalating tensions. A multinational force of 435 soldiers initially arrived in Beijing to aid the trapped diplomats, but the Boxers, supported by some Chinese troops, soon cut off the city, making relief efforts difficult. Amidst this chaos, the execution of a captured Boxer by German Minister Clemens von Ketteler heightened tensions, leading to a surge in violence. Foreign troops and Chinese Christians sought refuge in places like the British Embassy, defending against Boxer assaults. However, with the railway lines cut, Beijing was isolated from external aid, and the situation worsened. The Eight-Nation Alliance, led by British Vice Admiral Seymour, attempted to relieve the besieged legations but faced fierce resistance. Their journey toward Beijing was fraught with challenges, including sabotaged railways and ambushes. By mid-June, Seymour's forces were trapped near Langfang, surrounded by Chinese soldiers and Boxers, and struggling with dwindling supplies. Eventually, a rescue mission from Tianjin allowed their return, albeit at great cost. Simultaneously, internal strife within the Qing court complicated the situation. Empress Dowager Cixi debated using the Boxers to oust the foreigners but faced opposition within the court. Despite the growing foreign presence, she remained defiant, especially after the fall of the Dagu Forts to the foreign powers. She issued an ultimatum for foreigners to leave Beijing, but when they refused, tensions escalated further. The killing of Baron von Ketteler by a Manchu officer only reinforced the foreigners' fears, leading to their decision to stay and fortify their positions.
Siege and relief
By late June, Cixi officially declared war, instructing her forces to ally with the Boxers against the foreign powers. However, key regional governors, notably in southern China, refused to comply, weakening the overall Chinese military response. Inside Beijing, the siege intensified. Foreign defenders, including civilians and missionaries, faced constant assaults but managed to hold their ground, notably on the Tartar Wall, despite severe shortages and relentless Chinese attacks. As the siege dragged on, internal disagreements within the Qing forces surfaced. While some officials, like Ronglu, favored a diplomatic approach and even provided aid to the legations, others, notably Prince Duan and General Dong Fuxiang, advocated for more aggressive actions. This disunity prevented a decisive assault on the legations, allowing the besieged foreigners to survive. The situation was further muddled by conflicting orders within the Qing military, as some troops continued fighting the Boxers while others attacked foreign forces. By mid-July, an armistice was briefly declared, but sporadic fighting continued until the siege finally lifted when the Eight-Nation Alliance, now significantly reinforced, launched a successful offensive. General Gaselee led a massive force of 55,000 troops, composed of soldiers from Japan, Russia, Britain, France, the United States, Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary, to relieve the legations and suppress the rebellion. Despite fierce resistance, the foreign forces triumphed, marking the end of the siege and the rebellion.
Conclusion
The Boxer Rebellion ended with the signing of the Boxer Protocol on September 7, 1901. This agreement mandated the destruction of Beijing’s protective forts and severely punished those involved in the uprising. Additionally, foreign nations were allowed to station troops in Beijing, and China faced a two-year ban on importing arms. A heavy financial burden was also placed on China, as it was required to pay over $330 million in reparations to the nations affected by the conflict.
Aftermath
In the aftermath, foreign forces occupied parts of China, with the Eight-Nation Alliance controlling Zhili province and Russia occupying Manchuria. The occupation was marked by severe atrocities, including looting, executions, and widespread violence against civilians, particularly by German, Russian, and Japanese troops. The chaos led to daily auctions of looted goods, and many villages were destroyed in punitive expeditions. The Boxer Protocol also imposed harsh penalties on Chinese officials associated with the uprising and required China to pay a massive indemnity, further weakening the Qing dynasty. Despite some attempts at reform, the Qing government lost support, and revolutionary movements gained momentum. The rebellion’s failure and foreign occupation eroded the Qing dynasty’s power, leading to its eventual overthrow in the 1911 Xinhai Revolution and the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912. The Boxer Rebellion played a key role in the dynasty's decline, marking the end of over 2,000 years of imperial rule.
