The Balkan Wars of 1912-1913 were rooted in the growing nationalist aspirations and geopolitical shifts in southeastern Europe. After gaining independence from the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century, the Balkan states of Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro sought to expand their territories by incorporating the remaining Ottoman lands, especially in Macedonia. This period of nationalistic fervor mirrored the successes of 19th-century unification movements in Germany and Italy. The decline of the Ottoman Empire provided an opportunity for these states to pursue their maximal nationalist goals. The Young Turk Revolution of 1908, which sought to revitalize the Ottoman Empire through centralized reform, instead exacerbated tensions. The revolutionaries' policies failed to accommodate the diverse Christian nationalities within the empire, including Serbs, Bulgarians, Greeks, and Macedonians. This discontent fueled resistance movements like the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) and further intensified nationalist feelings among these ethnic groups. Serbia and Bulgaria, in particular, were driven by the turmoil in Macedonia to seek intervention and reorganization of the region's governance. Internationally, the Balkan states were influenced by the broader context of European power politics. The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary in 1908 had already sparked resentment in Serbia and shifted its focus towards Macedonia. The rivalry between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, coupled with shifting alliances, set the stage for the Balkan Wars. The Balkan League, formed in March 1912, was a coalition of Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro, united by their shared interests against the Ottoman Empire.
Outbreak of the First Balkan War
The First Balkan War began with Montenegro declaring war on the Ottoman Empire on October 8, 1912, according to the Gregorian calendar, or September 25 in the Julian calendar. Following Montenegro's lead, the other Balkan League members—Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece—joined the conflict within ten days. The war's primary battleground was Thrace, where Bulgaria focused its efforts. Bulgarian forces quickly advanced into Thrace due to significant Ottoman strategic misjudgments. The Ottomans mistakenly believed that the main Bulgarian strength was concentrated in Macedonia alongside Serbian troops. This led them to deploy their forces predominantly in Macedonia, leaving their position in Thrace vulnerable. The Bulgarian offensive in Thrace, spearheaded by a substantial force of 346,182 troops, targeted the Ottoman First Army. The Ottomans had 105,000 men stationed in eastern Thrace and 24,000 in the western part. The Bulgarian strategy divided their troops into three armies, with the First and Third Bulgarian Armies totaling 297,002 men attacking the Ottoman East Army of 96,273 near key locations such as Gechkenli, Seliolu, and Petra. The Bulgarians achieved a significant victory at Kirk Kilisse, which allowed them to lay siege to Adrianople (Edirne). However, due to a lack of siege equipment, they could not assault the fortress directly. The Greek naval dominance in the Aegean Sea further complicated Ottoman efforts to reinforce their positions, contributing to the Bulgarian advance.
Course of the war
The Ottomans, reeling from the losses in Thrace, attempted to regroup at the Chataldzha Line, their last defensive position before Constantinople. Despite Bulgarian attempts to breach this line on November 17, 1912, the battle ended in trench warfare, with both sides in a stalemate. Meanwhile, on the Macedonian front, the Serbian army achieved a decisive victory at Kumanovo on October 23, 1912. This success allowed Serbian forces to advance through Macedonia, Kosovo, and Albania, reaching the Adriatic coast by December. The Greek army also made significant advances. After securing the island of Lemnos on October 21, 1912, the Greeks established a strategic naval base at Moudros Bay. This position proved crucial as it limited Ottoman naval operations and reinforced Greek territorial gains. Greek naval successes included sinking the Ottoman battleship Feth-i Bülend and capturing Ottoman naval bases. Greek forces also made significant territorial gains in the Aegean and Ionian Seas, effectively isolating Ottoman positions and disrupting their supply lines. On December 3, 1912, an armistice was signed, and peace negotiations began in London. However, the peace process was disrupted by a coup d’état by the Young Turks in Constantinople on January 23, 1913. The new government, intent on continuing the war, denounced the armistice on January 30, 1913. Hostilities resumed with renewed Ottoman attempts to relieve pressure on their besieged cities. Despite these efforts, Greek forces captured Janina on March 6, 1913, and Bulgarian troops took Adrianople on March 26, 1913. The Ottomans were unable to counter these losses effectively. In Albania, the Siege of Shkodër proved contentious, with Austro-Hungarian pressure demanding the town's inclusion in the new Albanian state. Serbian forces assisting the Montenegrins were withdrawn under Austro-Hungarian pressure, but the Montenegrins eventually captured Shkodër on April 23, 1913, only to withdraw on May 5, 1913, following a Great Power flotilla’s intervention.
The Treaty of London
The Treaty of London, signed on May 30, 1913, concluded the First Balkan War and significantly reshaped the map of southeastern Europe. The agreement marked the end of Ottoman dominance in the region west of the Enez-Kıyıköy line, with the bulk of these territories transferred to the Balkan League, which included Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, and Bulgaria. The treaty formally recognized Albania as an independent state, an entity whose formation had been declared in November 1912. Despite the formal recognition, the new Albanian state’s borders were contested, and Serbia and Greece, who had initially occupied parts of the territory, were only reluctantly withdrawing their troops. The treaty also delineated new borders for Macedonia: Serbia took control of central and northern Macedonia, while Greece acquired southern Macedonia and several Aegean islands. Montenegro secured some areas in northern Albania, including Shkodër, though these gains were left subject to further negotiation. The Great Powers—Britain, France, Russia, and Italy—played a critical role in mediating and shaping the treaty to safeguard their strategic interests, though their intervention also exacerbated tensions among the Balkan states.
Aftermath
The Treaty of London did not resolve all the disputes in the Balkans and sowed seeds of further conflict. Bulgaria, dissatisfied with its share of the spoils, particularly regarding the division of Macedonia, began to reposition its military from Eastern Thrace to address these grievances. On May 1, 1913, Greece and Serbia, anticipating potential conflict with Bulgaria, formed a military alliance aimed at countering Bulgarian ambitions. This alliance was quickly followed by a treaty of mutual friendship and protection on May 19 / June 1, 1913, which further inflamed tensions. The Great Powers were aware of the brewing discord but were unable to prevent the escalation. Russia, a key supporter of the Balkan League and its aspirations, was surprised by Bulgaria’s aggressive moves toward Thrace and Constantinople, territories that Russia itself coveted. France, cautious about engaging in a broader conflict with Germany, opposed the Balkan states’ war efforts but failed to mobilize British support for intervention. The British Empire, while officially upholding the Ottoman Empire's territorial integrity, secretly encouraged Greek involvement in the League to counterbalance Russian influence and supported Bulgarian claims over Thrace to hinder Russian expansion. Austria-Hungary, facing internal pressures from Slavic populations and seeking to counter Serbian influence, was wary of any further expansion by Balkan states. Despite its initial promises of support, Germany, struggling with its own internal political complexities, was reluctant to back Austria-Hungary decisively, especially as it anticipated a broader conflict only by mid-1914. Consequently, when Serbia complied with an Austro-Hungarian ultimatum in October 1912 and withdrew from Albania, the response was muted. By the time tensions resurfaced in July 1914, leading to the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by the Black Hand, an organization linked to Serbia, the stage was set for a broader conflict. The unresolved issues from the First Balkan War, coupled with the intricate web of alliances and rivalries, paved the way for the outbreak of World War I.
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