The Gulf War, occurring between 1990 and 1991, was a pivotal event that reshaped the geopolitical landscape of the Middle East. It was ignited by Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait on August 2, 1990, driven by a combination of territorial claims and economic grievances. A coalition of 39 nations, led by the United States, responded to this aggression. The conflict highlighted the region's fragile stability and set the stage for future military interventions and international alliances.
Pre-war context and background
The roots of the Gulf War can be traced to longstanding tensions exacerbated by economic difficulties following the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988). Iraq emerged from this conflict with substantial debts—estimated at around $37 billion—primarily owed to Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and other Gulf states. In an effort to alleviate its financial burdens, Saddam Hussein's government pressured Kuwait to forgive these debts and adhere to OPEC oil production limits. Iraq accused Kuwait of exceeding these quotas, which it claimed further harmed its struggling economy. Tensions escalated in July 1990 when Saddam accused Kuwait of illegally siphoning oil from the Al-Rumaylah field, which straddles the Iraq-Kuwait border. Additionally, Iraq asserted historical claims over Kuwait based on borders drawn during British colonial rule. Diplomatic efforts to resolve these disputes ultimately failed, leading to Iraq's military invasion on August 2, 1990, involving approximately 140,000 troops and significant armored forces.
The invasion of Kuwait
The invasion commenced just after midnight on August 2, 1990, featuring a coordinated bombing campaign aimed at key infrastructure in Kuwait City. Iraqi forces employed a two-pronged strategy: one main force advanced directly toward the capital while another flanked west before turning east to encircle the city. This maneuver sought to block escape routes for Kuwaiti soldiers and civilians. While Kuwaiti forces initially resisted bravely, they were quickly overwhelmed by Iraq’s superior numbers and firepower. The Kuwaiti air force attempted to repel the attack but suffered significant losses in the early hours. The most intense fighting occurred at Dasman Palace, where local defenders faced overwhelming Iraqi artillery support. By midday on August 3, organized Kuwaiti resistance had largely collapsed; the royal family fled to Saudi Arabia as Iraqi forces took control of Kuwait City and established a regime known as the "Provisional Government of Free Kuwait." On August 8, Iraq formally annexed Kuwait as its 19th province.
Air campaign
In response to Iraq’s invasion, Operation Desert Shield was initiated on August 7, 1990, with the aim of defending Saudi Arabia from potential Iraqi aggression. On August 6, the UN imposed economic sanctions on Iraq. Diplomatic efforts culminated in UN Resolution 678 on November 29, which authorized military action if Iraq did not withdraw from Kuwait by January 15, 1991. By November, U.S. and coalition forces had amassed over 240,000 troops in preparation for potential military action. The air campaign known as Operation Desert Storm began on January 17, 1991. This phase focused on achieving air dominance through extensive bombing raids targeting Iraqi military installations and infrastructure across both Iraq and Kuwait. Coalition forces conducted around 2,000 sorties daily over five weeks. The objective was to degrade Iraq’s military strength and undermine morale among both Iraqi soldiers and civilians as civilian infrastructure was targeted alongside military objectives. Iraqi air defenses were quickly neutralized as coalition forces destroyed radar systems and missile installations, establishing near-total control of the skies by the end of January.
Ground campaign
After weeks of heavy bombardment that severely weakened Iraqi defenses, coalition ground forces launched their offensive on February 24, 1991. This phase of the war was marked by rapid and decisive advances; within just four days, by February 28, Kuwait had been liberated. The coalition's ground assault utilized fast-moving armored divisions supported by infantry and faced minimal resistance due to prior airstrikes crippling Iraqi capabilities. Earlier, in January 1991, Iraqi forces attempted a counterattack during the Battle of Khafji, but they were repelled by coalition forces, marking a key moment before the final offensive. One significant event during the ground campaign occurred at the so-called “Highway of Death,” where retreating Iraqi forces were decimated by coalition airstrikes on February 26–27. While the coalition quickly achieved its primary goal of liberating Kuwait, discussions arose regarding the future of Iraq. Some advocated for the removal of Saddam Hussein’s regime, but many coalition leaders favored containment strategies to prevent further aggression without fully destabilizing the region.
Aftermath
Although the coalition succeeded in liberating Kuwait, the Gulf War’s aftermath presented a range of humanitarian and political challenges. The war inflicted severe damage on Iraq’s infrastructure, and post-war sanctions exacerbated the country’s already dire economic and social conditions. In March 1991, following the war, uprisings broke out among the Shi’a in the south and Kurds in the north of Iraq. Saddam’s regime brutally suppressed these rebellions, and coalition forces, while establishing no-fly zones to protect civilians, chose not to intervene directly. These no-fly zones remained in place for years and symbolized ongoing tensions between Iraq and coalition powers. The unstable environment contributed to future conflicts in the region. The Gulf War set important precedents for U.S. military strategy and international coalition-building that influenced subsequent interventions in the Middle East, including the controversial 2003 invasion of Iraq. The stationing of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia also fueled rising anti-American sentiment that would later contribute to terrorist activities by groups such as al-Qaeda. The legacy of the Gulf War continues to impact global politics today, illustrating the complex interplay between military action, diplomacy, and humanitarian concerns.
