The Rwandan Civil War, which took place from October 1, 1990, to July 18, 1994, was a transformative conflict that not only changed the course of Rwanda's history but also left a lasting impact on global politics and humanitarian law. The war stemmed from longstanding ethnic tensions between the Hutu majority and the Tutsi minority, and tragically culminated in one of the deadliest genocides of the 20th century. Over a span of just three months, an estimated 800,000 to one million people lost their lives.
Historical context and ethnic tensions
Rwanda's ethnic divisions have deep roots, dating back to the colonial era. Before colonial rule, the country was home to various clans, but its social structure underwent significant changes under German colonization (1884-1916) and Belgian rule (1916-1962). The Belgians, who favored the Tutsi minority for administrative roles, institutionalized a system that reinforced Tutsi dominance over the Hutu majority. This favoritism became even more pronounced when identity cards were introduced in 1935, officially classifying people as either Hutu or Tutsi. Colonial policies exacerbated existing divisions by elevating the Tutsis and systematically marginalizing the Hutu population. After Rwanda gained independence in 1962, tensions between the two groups erupted into violence. Hutu leaders sought to reverse the colonial-era power dynamics, leading to the Rwandan Revolution (1959-1962), which saw mass killings of Tutsis and forced many to flee into exile. By the late 1980s, many of these exiled Tutsis had organized into the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) in Uganda, with the goal of returning to Rwanda and addressing the injustices they had suffered. The rise of the RPF signaled growing dissatisfaction among Tutsis, who had been politically excluded for decades.
The outbreak of civil war
The civil war officially began on October 1, 1990, when the RPF, led initially by Fred Rwigyema, launched an invasion from Uganda aimed at overthrowing the government of Juvénal Habyarimana and addressing the grievances of Tutsis in Rwanda and in exile. Although the RPF made initial progress, Rwigyema’s death early in the conflict was a setback. Paul Kagame took over leadership and shifted the strategy toward guerrilla warfare. In response, Habyarimana's government, supported by France and other allies, mobilized its forces. The war quickly escalated into a violent conflict with both sides making gains and suffering losses. By the end of 1991, a military stalemate had emerged, and diplomatic efforts to resolve the conflict began under increasing international pressure.
Peace negotiations and rising tensions
By mid-1992, the international community intensified efforts to broker peace, resulting in the Arusha Accords, signed in August 1993. These agreements aimed to create a power-sharing government that included both Hutu and Tutsi representatives. However, many Hutu extremists rejected the accords, fearing that sharing power with the Tutsis would undermine their political dominance. In response, these hardline factions ramped up anti-Tutsi propaganda, particularly through media outlets like Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines (RTLM). As the political atmosphere became more polarized, extremist groups prepared for violence by compiling lists of enemies, stockpiling weapons, and encouraging public hostility toward both Tutsis and moderate Hutus.
The assassination of Habyarimana and the genocide
On April 6, 1994, President Habyarimana's plane was shot down over Kigali under circumstances that remain disputed. This event was the spark that ignited mass violence. In the hours following his death, extremist Hutu militias, known as the Interahamwe, began systematically killing Tutsis and moderate Hutus. Government forces joined these militias, setting up roadblocks across Rwanda to identify and kill Tutsis, often based on their identity cards. Within days, the violence spread from cities to rural areas, marking the start of a brutal genocide. What unfolded was a highly organized campaign of mass murder fueled by hate speech that dehumanized Tutsis and called for their extermination. Over the course of approximately 100 days, between April 7 and mid-July 1994, the genocide unfolded with terrifying speed and brutality. Between 500,000 and one million people were killed, many hacked to death with machetes or other crude weapons. While government forces were responsible for much of the violence, ordinary citizens, driven by fear or indoctrination, also took part in the killings, often turning against their own neighbors. Sexual violence was rampant during the genocide, with thousands of women raped as part of this campaign of terror. Hospitals, which should have been safe havens, became places where women were further abused, as medical personnel were often powerless or complicit. Despite clear warnings from United Nations peacekeepers about the impending genocide, the international community largely failed to intervene. The United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR), led by General Roméo Dallaire, was severely constrained in its ability to act, receiving limited support and resources from the UN and its member states, despite Dallaire's repeated pleas for assistance.
The end of the civil war and its aftermath
As the genocide raged, the civil war resumed with the RPF launching a decisive military offensive against government forces. By July 4, 1994, Kigali had fallen to the RPF, marking a turning point in the conflict. Paul Kagame, now a central figure in the new RPF-led government, emerged as a key leader in Rwanda's post-war recovery. In the wake of the RPF’s victory, approximately two million Hutus fled the country, fearing retaliation for their involvement in the genocide or simply escaping the ongoing violence. Many sought refuge in neighboring countries, particularly Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of Congo), where they faced harsh conditions in refugee camps. Rwanda was left deeply scarred by the war and genocide, with societal divisions and widespread trauma affecting the survivors. In an effort to promote healing and accountability, Kagame’s government initiated national reconciliation policies and established Gacaca tribunals—community-based courts aimed at delivering justice and fostering reconciliation among Rwandans. These initiatives, while imperfect, were steps toward rebuilding a nation torn apart by violence and hatred.
