The Eritrean War of Independence, fought from September 1, 1961, to May 29, 1991, was a pivotal conflict driven by the desire for Eritrea’s self-determination and independence from Ethiopian domination. The war arose from a complex history of colonialism and the post-World War II annexation of Eritrea by Ethiopia. Following Ethiopia’s dissolution of Eritrea’s federal arrangement and its parliamentary autonomy in 1962 under Emperor Haile Selassie, nationalist movements began organizing against Ethiopian rule. Two main factions emerged during this struggle: the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) and the Eritrean People’s Liberation Front (EPLF), both of which employed guerrilla warfare against the Ethiopian military. The war was marked by widespread violence, severe human rights abuses, and a series of key battles that ultimately led to Eritrea's independence in 1991.
Early resistance and the formation of liberation movements
The origins of Eritrea’s fight for independence date back to 1941, when Italian colonial rule ended, and Eritrea came under British administration. After World War II, in 1952, Eritrea entered into a federation with Ethiopia, which provided limited autonomy. However, in 1962, Emperor Haile Selassie dismantled the federation, annexing Eritrea as an Ethiopian province. This move provoked widespread dissatisfaction among Eritreans, many of whom had been pushing for self-determination for years. The armed resistance began on September 1, 1961, when Hamid Idris Awate and a small group of insurgents fired the first shots against Ethiopian forces, officially starting the war for independence. The ELF was the first major nationalist movement to emerge, initially comprising mainly Muslim Eritreans who sought to address longstanding ethnic discrimination and political marginalization. Their tactics largely consisted of guerrilla strikes against Ethiopian military outposts. As the resistance movement expanded, new groups formed within the nationalist ranks. The ELF’s efforts were hampered by internal divisions, driven by ethnic and ideological differences, which undermined its unity. By 1970, these divisions culminated in a split within the ELF, with Isaias Afwerki and others breaking away to form the EPLF. The EPLF distinguished itself by advocating a more inclusive national movement that sought to unite Eritreans across ethnic and religious lines, and it adopted a Marxist-Leninist ideology to guide its struggle.
Escalation of conflict: The ELF and EPLF
Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, both the ELF and EPLF intensified their efforts through guerrilla warfare aimed at weakening Ethiopian control. The ELF achieved some early successes, such as capturing the towns of Teseney and Agordat, while the EPLF gained control over strategic areas like Nakfa and Afabet. The EPLF’s disciplined organizational structure and broader appeal to diverse Eritrean groups helped it gain influence, while internal divisions continued to limit the effectiveness of the ELF. Ethiopia responded to these growing insurgencies with increasing brutality. The Ethiopian government, particularly under the Derg regime, which came to power after the overthrow of Haile Selassie in 1974, launched severe military offensives. The Derg’s tactics included aerial bombardments and scorched-earth policies, which devastated rural areas suspected of supporting the rebels. Civilians endured horrific human rights violations during this period. Despite these challenges, the Eritrean factions pressed on, though their ideological differences and rival strategies remained a significant source of tension between the ELF and EPLF.
The Derg regime and Soviet support
In 1974, the Derg, led by Mengistu Haile Mariam, seized power in Ethiopia, establishing a Marxist-Leninist military regime. The Derg quickly secured Soviet support, gaining access to advanced weaponry and training, which enabled it to launch massive offensives against the ELF and EPLF from the late 1970s into the 1980s. Between 1978 and 1986, the Derg undertook eight major military campaigns to crush the Eritrean insurgencies. Nevertheless, both the ELF and EPLF successfully utilized guerrilla tactics to resist the Ethiopian army’s overwhelming firepower. During this time, the EPLF began to implement strategies that gained it further traction. It mobilized local populations, created liberated zones, and established governance structures in areas under its control. Despite facing devastating losses at the hands of Ethiopian forces equipped with Soviet-supplied weaponry, the EPLF gradually rebuilt its momentum, benefiting from the discontent among rural communities suffering under the Derg’s harsh policies.
Major battles and shifts in momentum
By the late 1980s, several key factors led to a turning point in the war. Economic hardship and political repression in Ethiopia, exacerbated by famine, eroded the morale of Ethiopian forces. In 1988, the EPLF’s decisive victory in the Battle of Afabet, where it captured critical Ethiopian military installations, marked a significant shift. This win boosted the EPLF's position, enabling them to surround Keren and prepare for an assault on Asmara, Eritrea’s capital. At the same time, other Ethiopian rebel groups, such as the Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF), also made substantial gains against the Derg. By 1991, Ethiopia was losing Soviet support, largely due to geopolitical shifts resulting from glasnost and perestroika, and Mengistu's regime was crumbling under both internal and international pressure. These developments set the stage for a final EPLF offensive, culminating in the capture of Asmara on May 24-25, 1991, effectively ending Ethiopian rule over Eritrea.
The fall of Asmara and declaration of independence
With the capture of Asmara in May 1991, the EPLF swiftly took control of the capital. Simultaneously, Mengistu fled Ethiopia as rebels entered Addis Ababa on May 28, bringing an end to the Derg regime. Eritrean leaders moved quickly to establish an independent government. In April 1993, Eritrea held a UN-supervised referendum on independence, with nearly 99% of voters opting for secession. Eritrea formally declared independence on May 24, 1993, a day celebrated as the culmination of a decades-long fight for freedom.
Post-independence challenges and legacy of the war
Eritrea's independence in 1993 was met with optimism, but it also ushered in numerous challenges, including the complex task of nation-building amid political repression and economic difficulties. The EPLF transitioned into the country's ruling party, with Isaias Afwerki becoming president. However, his regime prioritized national unity over political freedoms, resulting in widespread human rights violations and the stifling of dissent. Tensions with Ethiopia flared once again in 1998, leading to a border conflict that claimed tens of thousands of lives. The war's legacy is multifaceted. On one hand, Eritrea achieved sovereignty and forged a strong national identity through decades of struggle. On the other hand, the militarization of the society, combined with the authoritarian governance and mandatory conscription often likened to forced labor, inflicted long-term suffering. Eritrea continues to face political and economic challenges today, with strained relations with Ethiopia, unresolved governance issues, and humanitarian crises compounded by climate change, shaping its future trajectory.
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Which two main factions emerged during the Eritrean War of Independence?
