The Lebanese Civil War, which lasted from 1975 to 1990, was a complex conflict rooted in both internal strife and external pressures. While commonly referred to as a civil war, it is more accurately described as a series of interconnected confrontations involving various Lebanese factions and regional powers. The origins of the war can be traced to the fragile socio-political landscape of Lebanon, marked by deep-seated sectarian divisions among Christians, Muslims, and other groups, compounded by the influx of Palestinian refugees and the broader geopolitical dynamics of the Middle East. This devastating conflict led to considerable loss of life, widespread displacement, and extensive destruction, with estimates of casualties ranging from 90,000 to as high as 150,000.
Origins of the conflict
The foundations of the Lebanese Civil War were laid in the early 20th century, but the tensions became particularly evident in the 1960s and early 1970s. The Lebanese political framework relied on a delicate sectarian balance, established by the National Pact of 1943, which distributed power among the country’s diverse religious communities. However, demographic shifts and socio-economic inequalities began to erode this equilibrium. By the 1970s, Lebanon’s Muslim population had increased significantly, fueled by higher birth rates and an influx of Palestinian refugees resulting from the Arab-Israeli conflicts. This demographic transformation ignited demands for greater political representation from Muslims and leftist factions, who felt sidelined by the predominantly Christian political elite. Tensions escalated with the growing influence of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), which established a presence in Lebanon during the late 1960s. The PLO's military actions against Israel from Lebanese territory heightened sectarian tensions, particularly among Christian communities who perceived these operations as direct threats to their safety. The conflict ignited in April 1975, when Phalangist militia members attacked a bus transporting Palestinians to a refugee camp in Beirut, marking the start of a prolonged civil conflict.
The Two-Year War
The initial phase of the Lebanese Civil War is often termed the Two-Year War. Following the bus attack on April 13, 1975, retaliatory violence erupted between Christian militias and leftist-Muslim factions allied with the PLO. This period was characterized by brutal confrontations and massacres, notably Black Saturday on December 6, 1975, when Phalangists killed numerous Muslims in retaliation for earlier violence. The conflict swiftly escalated into widespread fighting throughout Beirut, effectively dividing the city into predominantly Christian East Beirut and Muslim West Beirut along sectarian lines. During this tumultuous period, various militias emerged as significant players. The Lebanese Front (LF), led by Phalangists representing Maronite Christians, clashed with the Lebanese National Movement (LNM), a coalition of leftists and Sunni Muslims advocating for Palestinian rights. As hostilities intensified, foreign interventions became increasingly pronounced; in 1976, Syria dispatched troops to Lebanon under the guise of an Arab Deterrent Force to stabilize the situation, ultimately siding with Christian factions against leftist forces.
Interventions and stalemate
The years following the initial outbreak of violence were marked by failed peace attempts and persistent foreign interventions. Syria's presence solidified its influence over Lebanese politics, while Israel began to intervene more directly due to perceived threats from Palestinian militias operating within Lebanon. Throughout this time, various factions engaged in violent confrontations, leading to massacres at sites such as Tal al-Za’tar and Damour. In June 1982, Israel initiated a full-scale invasion of Lebanon, aiming to eliminate PLO forces located there. This invasion resulted in significant territorial gains for Israeli forces and culminated in the siege of Beirut. Ultimately, the PLO was expelled from Lebanon following negotiations facilitated by international actors.
The aftermath of the Israeli invasion
In the wake of Israel's invasion and subsequent withdrawal from most urban areas by 1985, Lebanon entered a new phase marked by internal strife among various factions competing for control. The power vacuum left by the PLO's departure led to increased rivalry among militias, such as Amal, a Shiite group, and Hezbollah, which emerged as a prominent force opposing both Israeli occupation and rival factions. This period was characterized by intense fighting known as "the War of the Camps," where Shiite militias battled Palestinian factions for dominance over refugee camps. The socio-economic conditions deteriorated further, plunging Lebanon into what could be described as a militia economy, where many citizens depended on militia groups for basic services amidst widespread unemployment and inflation. By this time, Lebanon had fragmented into confessional enclaves controlled by various militias operating independently from any central authority.
Late civil war dynamics and the Ta'if accords
As the late 1980s approached, Lebanon faced intensified internal divisions, with rival factions claiming legitimacy amid political paralysis. Following President Amin Gemayel's term expiration in September 1988, General Michel Aoun declared himself president, prompting opposition from both rival Christian factions and Syrian-backed forces eager to maintain their influence in Lebanon. This period was marked by fierce clashes between Aoun’s troops and those loyal to Syria, including Samir Geagea’s Lebanese Forces, resulting in significant bloodshed and shifting alliances as factions vied for power. In October 1989, representatives from various factions convened in Ta'if, Saudi Arabia, leading to the Ta'if Accords, an agreement aimed at ending hostilities. This accord sought to restructure Lebanon's political system to ensure a more equitable distribution of power among sectarian groups while legitimizing the Syrian presence under specific conditions. By October 1990, following Aoun's defeat and exile, the civil war officially ended. Although the Ta'if Accords laid the groundwork for rebuilding Lebanon, they failed to address many underlying issues, leaving established elites in control and exacerbating sectarian divisions.
Aftermath and legacy
The repercussions of the Lebanese Civil War continue to affect Lebanon today. Over 100,000 people lost their lives during this drawn-out conflict, and millions were displaced both internally and externally. The war left profound scars on Lebanese society, marked by sectarian fragmentation that persists despite attempts at reconciliation. Economically, Lebanon faced immense challenges post-war, with infrastructure devastated and economic systems collapsing under wartime pressures. Reconstruction efforts were further complicated by corruption and mismanagement within political structures that remained largely unchanged since before the war. Additionally, the civil war reshaped regional dynamics in the Middle East, drawing in foreign powers like Syria and Iran while influencing local movements such as Hezbollah, which emerged during this turbulent period. Today’s political landscape remains heavily influenced by these historical events as Lebanon grapples with its complex identity forged through decades of conflict and external intervention.
Test your knowledge
Which political framework established a sectarian balance in Lebanon?
