Prosocial behavior refers to actions aimed at benefiting others. Most definitions highlight that these are positive social acts directed at one or more individuals. There are two primary ways to define prosocial behavior. The intentionalist perspective focuses on the actor's intentions. According to Batson and Powell, prosocial behavior encompasses any action meant to benefit others, regardless of the outcome. From this view, as long as the intention is to promote the welfare of others, the action is considered prosocial—even if it results in unintended negative consequences, like overprotective parenting. For instance, privately praying for someone’s health would qualify as prosocial, even without a tangible impact on the person’s well-being. In contrast, the consequentialist perspective emphasizes the actual outcomes. Schroeder and Graziano define prosocial behavior as any action that benefits others, meaning the positive result is the key criterion, even if the actor’s intention wasn't originally prosocial. Altruism is a more specific form of prosocial behavior, often defined by its underlying motivation. Some researchers, like Batson, conceptualize altruism as a motivational state where the primary goal is to improve another person’s welfare. Altruism is typically considered a subtype of prosocial behavior, but it involves a genuine desire to help others without expecting personal gain. This contrasts with egoism, which is behavior motivated by self-interest.
Prosocial behavior vs. altruism
Though they are closely related, prosocial behavior and altruism differ in important ways. Prosocial behavior is a broader category, encompassing a variety of actions that benefit others. It can be driven by a range of motives, including self-interest, altruism, or even neutral factors. Altruism, however, is specifically motivated by the desire to help others without expecting anything in return. In this sense, prosocial behavior focuses more on the action itself and its intended effects, while altruism emphasizes the selfless nature of the underlying motivation. For example, imagine an employee who compliments their boss to gain favor and secure a promotion. From an intentionalist perspective, the action could be seen as prosocial because it aims to make the boss feel good. However, it would not be considered altruistic, as the motivation is self-serving.
Psychological perspectives
Several psychological theories offer insights into why people engage in prosocial behavior and altruism. From an evolutionary psychology standpoint, behaviors like altruism have developed because they increase the likelihood of survival and reproduction. Kin selection theory suggests that individuals are more inclined to help close relatives to ensure the survival of shared genes. Similarly, reciprocal altruism proposes that helping others is often done with the expectation that the favor will be returned in the future. Group selection theory extends this idea, positing that groups with more altruistic members are more likely to thrive and reproduce. In social psychology, various factors influence prosocial behavior. The empathy-altruism hypothesis, proposed by C. Daniel Batson, suggests that feeling empathy towards others can lead to genuinely altruistic actions. Additionally, social norms—cultural expectations and societal rules—play a significant role in promoting prosocial behavior. However, the bystander effect shows that the presence of others can sometimes inhibit helping behavior, as people assume someone else will take action. Mood also affects prosocial tendencies, with positive emotional states typically increasing the likelihood of helping others. Developmental psychology examines how prosocial behavior and altruism emerge and evolve over a person’s life. Research shows that even infants display early prosocial tendencies, such as a preference for individuals who behave kindly toward others. As children grow, socialization by parents, peers, and societal influences helps shape their prosocial behaviors. Cognitive development, too, plays a crucial role, as children's increasing understanding of others' needs enhances their ability to empathize and act altruistically.
Methods of studying prosocial behavior and altruism
Psychologists use a variety of methods to study prosocial behavior and altruism. Self-report measures, like questionnaires and surveys, are commonly employed to assess individuals' tendencies toward prosocial behavior. Behavioral experiments allow researchers to observe helping actions in controlled environments, while economic games—such as the Dictator Game or the Public Goods Game—offer insights into decision-making in prosocial contexts. More recently, neuroimaging techniques have been used to study the brain activity associated with altruistic and prosocial behaviors, offering a deeper understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying these actions.
Ongoing challenges and debates
Despite significant progress in understanding altruism and prosocial behavior, some challenges remain. One of the most debated topics is whether pure altruism—truly selfless behavior—exists, as some researchers argue that even seemingly altruistic acts provide psychological benefits to the individual performing them. Another issue concerns cultural differences; much of the research has been conducted in Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic (WEIRD) societies, which may limit the applicability of findings across different cultures. Furthermore, measuring true altruistic motivation is difficult, as is distinguishing it from other prosocial motivations. Finally, situational factors can strongly influence prosocial behavior, complicating efforts to identify stable individual differences in people’s propensity to act altruistically. In summary, while the field has made great strides in understanding prosocial behavior and altruism, many questions remain about their mechanisms, development, and cultural variations. Continued research will be crucial in uncovering the complexities of these important psychological phenomena.
Test your knowledge
According to the intentionalist perspective, what defines prosocial behavior?
