The Kingdoms of Aksum and Himyar

Introduction

The Kingdoms of Aksum and Himyar were two pivotal ancient states that flourished in different regions of the ancient world. Aksum was located in East Africa and South Arabia, while Himyar was situated in the southern highlands of Yemen. These kingdoms played crucial roles in the economic, cultural, and political landscapes of their respective regions and beyond. Aksum’s influence extended into the Mediterranean world, while Himyar’s reach was significant in the Arabian Peninsula.

The Kingdom of Aksum

The Kingdom of Aksum, also known as the Aksumite Empire, emerged in classical antiquity and continued until the Middle Ages. It was one of the four great powers of the third century, alongside Persia, Rome, and China, as noted by the Persian prophet Mani. Aksum’s origins are traced back to the first century CE, with its early development influenced by the Sabaeans from South Arabia. The kingdom’s strategic location allowed it to control key trade routes in the Red Sea, facilitating trade between the Mediterranean and India. This included goods such as ivory, spices, and metals, which contributed to Aksum’s wealth and influence. Aksum began its expansion under King Gedara (c. 200–230), who was the first king to involve Aksum in South Arabian affairs. During his reign, Aksum gained control over much of western Yemen, including the Tihama, Najran, Al-Maʿafir, and parts of the Hashid territory around Hamir in the northern highlands. However, a joint Himyarite-Sabean alliance eventually pushed Aksum out of these territories. Under King Endubis (270–310), Aksum started minting coins, which were found as far away as Caesarea and southern India, indicating the kingdom’s extensive trade networks.

The Kingdom of Himyar

The Kingdom of Himyar was a polity in the southern highlands of Yemen, emerging as an independent kingdom after being part of the Qatabanian kingdom until 110 BCE. The Himyarites originally worshiped the South-Arabian pantheon but later adopted Judaism, particularly during the reign of Malkikarib Yuhamin (c. 375–400 CE). This religious shift was significant and had profound impacts on Himyar’s relations with neighboring kingdoms and empires. Himyar’s capital was initially the ancient city of Zafar, near modern-day Sana’a, and later shifted to Sana’a as the population increased in the fifth century. The kingdom expanded by conquering neighboring kingdoms, including Saba’ in 25 BCE, Qataban in 200 CE, and Haḍramaut in 300 CE. Himyar’s power fluctuated relative to Saba’ until it finally conquered the Sabaean Kingdom around 280 CE. This expansion allowed Himyar to control much of the Arabian Peninsula’s trade, particularly the lucrative incense trade.

Economic and cultural significance

Both kingdoms were significant economic powers due to their strategic locations. Aksum controlled key trade routes in the Red Sea, facilitating trade between the Mediterranean and India. This trade included goods such as ivory, spices, and metals, which contributed to Aksum’s wealth and influence. Aksum’s economic prowess was also reflected in its architectural achievements, such as the Stelae of Aksum, which are monumental stone obelisks that symbolize the kingdom’s power and engineering capabilities. Himyar, on the other hand, was renowned for its export of incense, which was crucial for pagan Roman religious offerings. However, with the Christianization of Rome, the demand for incense decreased, leading to a decline in Himyar’s economy by the fourth century. Despite this, Himyar maintained its cultural significance, particularly through its adoption of Judaism, which influenced its relations with other Jewish communities in the region.

Religious and cultural practices

The Kingdom of Aksum initially practiced traditional African and Mediterranean religions but later adopted Christianity in the fourth century. This adoption had significant cultural and political implications, aligning Aksum more closely with the Byzantine Empire. The conversion to Christianity was facilitated by the missionary work of two Syrian brothers, Frumentius and Aedesius, who were shipwrecked in Aksum. Frumentius became the first bishop of Aksum and played a crucial role in establishing Christianity as the state religion. In contrast, the Himyarites initially worshiped the South-Arabian pantheon but later adopted Judaism. This religious shift was particularly notable during the reign of Malkikarib Yuhamin. The Himyarites also had interactions with early Christianity and Islam, with some Himyarite leaders playing roles in the Muslim conquests of the seventh century. The adoption of Judaism in Himyar led to conflicts with Christian states, including Aksum, which had converted to Christianity.

Conflicts and alliances

The kingdoms of Aksum and Himyar had a complex history of conflicts and alliances. Aksum’s expansion into South Arabia led to persistent conflicts with the Himyarites throughout the third century. These conflicts were part of a broader geopolitical landscape involving other regional powers, including the Sabaeans and the Sasanian Empire. In the sixth century, Aksum’s general Abraha deposed the Himyarite king Sumyafa Ashwa and took control of Himyar. However, this Aksumite rule was short-lived, as the Sasanian Empire, with the help of the Himyarite leader Ma’adi Yakrib, eventually conquered Himyar and ended Aksumite overlordship in 575 or 578 CE. This event marked a significant shift in the balance of power in the region, with the Sasanian Empire gaining control over much of the Arabian Peninsula.

Legacy

The kingdoms of Aksum and Himyar left lasting legacies in their regions. Aksum’s influence can be seen in the modern-day cultures of Ethiopia and Eritrea, where the kingdom’s historical significance is still celebrated. Aksum’s architectural achievements, such as the Stelae of Aksum, are also notable and have been recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Himyar’s legacy extends into the Islamic period, with Himyarite families re-establishing control over parts of Yemen after the spread of Islam. Himyarite leaders also played significant roles in the Muslim conquests of Syria and Egypt, and their descendants continued to influence the region’s politics and culture. The cultural and religious practices of both kingdoms have had enduring impacts on the regions they once ruled, reflecting the complex and interconnected nature of ancient civilizations.