The Portuguese Revolution

Introduction

The Portuguese Revolution, commonly referred to as the Carnation Revolution, was a landmark event that brought an end to over four decades of authoritarian rule in Portugal. Taking place on April 25, 1974, this almost bloodless coup led to profound political, social, and economic changes both in Portugal and its colonies. The revolution not only dismantled the Estado Novo dictatorship but also laid the foundation for Portugal’s move towards democracy and the eventual decolonization of its African territories.

Background

Discontent in Portugal had long been brewing under the Estado Novo regime, established in the 1930s by António de Oliveira Salazar. This authoritarian government was marked by severe censorship, political repression, and an exhausting colonial war in Africa, which drained both the country’s resources and morale. By the early 1970s, dissatisfaction was growing across various sectors of society, including military officers, intellectuals, and the urban middle class. This unrest was fueled by economic stagnation, widespread social inequality, and an increasing demand for democratic governance. The military’s frustrations were particularly acute, largely due to the regime’s policy of assigning militia officers to fight in the colonial wars, undermining the career prospects of regular army officers. The release of General António de Spínola’s book Portugal e o Futuro in February 1974 added fuel to this fire. In the book, Spínola criticized the regime’s insistence on continuing colonial wars and instead advocated for granting autonomy to Portugal’s African colonies through negotiation. His ideas resonated with many in the military who had grown disillusioned with the regime’s direction.

Growing discontent

As discontent intensified, opposition groups began organizing against the Estado Novo government. Among them was the Armed Forces Movement (Movimento das Forças Armadas, MFA), a secret group of military officers opposed to both the dictatorship and its colonial policies. The MFA aimed to bring about change through a coup d’état, and by April 1974, tensions had reached a breaking point, with military unrest building toward decisive action. On April 24, 1974, MFA officers began executing their plan, first by taking control of key communication channels in Lisbon. They broadcast warnings urging civilians to remain at home while the coup unfolded. Despite these messages, thousands of Portuguese citizens poured into the streets to support the military, turning what began as a military coup into a broader popular revolution.

Revolution

The coup officially began in the early hours of April 25, when MFA troops seized critical locations in Lisbon, including radio stations and government buildings. The most memorable moment of the revolution took place at the Carmo Barracks, where Prime Minister Marcello Caetano had sought refuge. Faced with overwhelming force, Caetano’s government quickly collapsed, and he surrendered later that day with little resistance. The revolution’s name stems from the striking image of soldiers placing carnations in their rifle barrels, a powerful symbol of peace and hope for a fresh start. This peaceful imagery resonated with people both in Portugal and abroad, establishing the event as one of the most bloodless revolutions in history. Following Caetano’s surrender, General António Spínola was appointed to lead a provisional government that would guide Portugal towards democracy. Despite the initial optimism, the revolution soon faced challenges. Some factions within the MFA pushed for deeper social changes, leading to widespread strikes and protests as workers formed unions and called for the nationalization of capitalist enterprises. In September 1974, Spínola tried to assert his control through a counter-coup but failed, lacking the necessary military support.

Aftermath and legacy

In the wake of the Carnation Revolution, Portugal experienced significant political turbulence as different factions battled to influence the country’s future. The MFA transitioned into a governing body, enacting sweeping reforms to dismantle the remnants of authoritarian rule. Censorship was abolished, political parties were legalized, and negotiations with African nationalist groups led to independence for several former colonies. By mid-1975, however, political instability was rife, as radical leftist groups clashed with more moderate forces within both the military and civilian sectors. This unrest culminated in a failed radical coup in November 1975, which ultimately led to the restoration of order under more centrist leadership. The legacy of the Carnation Revolution is far-reaching. Not only did it end decades of dictatorship in Portugal, but it also sparked democratic movements throughout Europe during the Cold War. The revolution inspired similar transitions to democracy in Greece and Spain, and it is often seen as part of a broader wave of democratization that would eventually sweep across Eastern Europe by the late 1980s.