Theories of International Relations

Introduction

The study of international relations (IR) seeks to understand how nations interact with one another and what influences these interactions. This field of political science explores the behavior of states, international organizations, non-state actors, and the mechanisms that govern global politics.

Theories of international relations are essential because they offer frameworks for analyzing complex international events and behaviors. These theories help scholars and policymakers make sense of war and peace, alliances, diplomacy, globalization, economic cooperation, and conflict resolution.

While no single theory can explain every aspect of international relations, each offers valuable insights into different dimensions of global politics.

Realism

Realism is one of the oldest and most influential theories of international relations. Rooted in the works of classical thinkers like Thucydides, Machiavelli, and Hobbes, realism assumes that the international system is anarchic, meaning there is no central authority to enforce rules or protect states. In such a system, states are the primary actors, and they act in pursuit of their own national interest, which is often defined in terms of power.

Realists argue that because states cannot rely on others for their security, they must be prepared to use military force to protect themselves. This results in a constant struggle for power, where war is always a possibility. Structural or neorealism, developed by Kenneth Waltz, further emphasizes that it is the structure of the international system that determines state behavior, rather than the personal motives of leaders.

Realism tends to be pessimistic about the prospects for international cooperation, arguing that even alliances are temporary and based on convenience rather than trust.

Liberalism

In contrast to realism, liberalism presents a more optimistic view of international relations. Liberal theorists believe that cooperation among states is not only possible but also beneficial. This theory highlights the importance of international institutions, economic interdependence, democratic governance, and international law in promoting peace and stability.

Liberalism traces its roots to Enlightenment thinkers like Immanuel Kant and later political economists such as Adam Smith. One of the key ideas in liberalism is that democracies are less likely to go to war with one another, which is a concept known as the democratic peace theory.

Liberals argue that international organizations like the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, and the International Monetary Fund can mitigate conflict by providing forums for negotiation and dispute resolution. Economic globalization, which increases the cost of war and strengthens mutual dependence among states, is also seen as a stabilizing force. Therefore, liberalism encourages the spread of democracy, open markets, and institutional cooperation as ways to achieve long-term peace.

Constructivism

Constructivism emerged as a response to both realism and liberalism, challenging the idea that international politics is governed solely by material factors like military capabilities or economic strength. Constructivists argue that ideas, identities, and social norms play a crucial role in shaping state behavior. The theory emphasizes that international relations are socially constructed through shared beliefs and interactions.

For example, whether a country is seen as a friend or a threat often depends more on perceived identity than on objective capabilities. Constructivists focus on how norms—widely accepted standards of behavior—evolve and influence state actions. For instance, the norm against the use of chemical weapons or the development of human rights regimes is not enforced by power but by shared moral and legal standards.

Constructivism also pays attention to the role of international actors such as non-governmental organizations (NGOs), advocacy networks, and the media in shaping public opinion and influencing policy decisions. This theory opens up space to consider cultural, historical, and ideational factors in global politics.

Marxism and critical theories

Marxist theories of international relations focus on the role of economic structures and class struggle in shaping global politics. Influenced by the writings of Karl Marx, these theories argue that the international system is characterized by deep economic inequalities, with a small number of wealthy countries dominating poorer ones through global capitalism.

According to Marxist theorists, international institutions and policies often serve the interests of capitalist elites, perpetuating a global hierarchy that benefits powerful multinational corporations and wealthy nations. Dependency theory, a variant of Marxist thought, argues that developing countries are trapped in a cycle of poverty because they are dependent on richer nations for trade, investment, and technology.

These theories critique both realism and liberalism for ignoring the economic dimensions of power and exploitation. Critical theorists, building on Marxist foundations, also question dominant narratives in international relations and seek to uncover hidden structures of oppression related to race, gender, and post-colonial legacies.

Feminist theories

Feminist theories of international relations introduce a gendered perspective to the study of global politics. These theories argue that traditional IR has been dominated by masculine assumptions about power, conflict, and state behavior, which overlook the roles and experiences of women and marginalized groups.

Feminist scholars highlight how international politics affects men and women differently and how gendered language and norms influence policy decisions. For instance, military power is often associated with masculine ideals of strength and dominance, while diplomacy and peace-building are sometimes dismissed as feminine and therefore undervalued.

Feminist IR theorists also study how issues like sexual violence in conflict zones, gendered labor exploitation, and the representation of women in political leadership impact global outcomes. By focusing on both the visible and invisible impacts of gender in international affairs, feminist theories call for a more inclusive and equitable understanding of global politics.

English school: international society and order

The English School of international relations combines elements of both realism and liberalism but places a distinct emphasis on the concept of an “international society.” This theory argues that although the international system is anarchic, states have developed a set of shared rules, norms, and institutions that guide their interactions. These shared understandings create a sense of order and legitimacy among states, even in the absence of a world government.

The English School identifies three traditions within international relations: realism (focused on power politics), rationalism (focused on rules and diplomacy), and revolutionism (focused on moral progress and human rights). By acknowledging the coexistence of conflict and cooperation, the English School offers a more nuanced perspective that captures the complexity of global politics. It also emphasizes the importance of history, law, and ethics in shaping the international order.

Postcolonial theories

Postcolonial theories in international relations examine how the legacies of colonialism continue to influence contemporary global politics. These theories argue that modern international relations are deeply shaped by historical processes of conquest, empire-building, and cultural domination.

Postcolonial scholars critique traditional IR theories for being Eurocentric and failing to account for the voices and experiences of people in formerly colonized regions. They explore how colonial attitudes persist in international development, foreign policy, and cultural representation. For example, the portrayal of certain regions as backward or unstable often justifies military intervention or economic control by powerful states.

Postcolonial IR also emphasizes resistance, or how marginalized groups challenge global hierarchies and reclaim agency in international affairs. This perspective contributes to a broader understanding of justice, identity, and power beyond the boundaries of the nation-state.