19th-Century Political Thought

Introduction

The 19th century was a period of profound change in political ideas, shaped by revolutions, industrialization, and the decline of traditional monarchies. As societies moved from agricultural economies to industrialized ones, political thinkers began questioning the nature of power, freedom, and social organization.

This era gave rise to major ideologies—liberalism, conservatism, socialism, nationalism, utilitarianism, and anarchism—each offering different visions for how society should be structured. These ideas emerged in response to the rapid transformations of the time, including the French Revolution, the rise of capitalism, and the struggles of the working class.

The political theories developed during this century not only influenced 19th-century governance but also laid the groundwork for modern political systems.

The rise of liberalism: individual rights and limited government

Liberalism became one of the most influential political philosophies of the 19th century, centered on the belief in individual freedoms, constitutional rule, and economic freedom. Thinkers like John Stuart Mill argued that personal liberty was the foundation of a just society.

In On Liberty (1859), Mill defended freedom of speech and thought, asserting that individuals should only be restrained if their actions harmed others. This principle, known as the “harm principle,” became a key tenet of liberal thought.

Economically, liberals like Adam Smith and David Ricardo championed free markets, opposing heavy government intervention. They believed that competition and private enterprise would lead to economic growth and prosperity. However, as industrialization progressed, critics began pointing out the inequalities it created, leading to alternative ideologies like socialism.

Conservatism: tradition, order, and stability

While liberalism promoted change, conservatism emerged as a defense of tradition, stability, and gradual reform. Conservatives like Edmund Burke reacted against the chaos of the French Revolution, arguing that societies should evolve naturally rather than through violent upheaval.

Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) warned that radical change could destroy valuable social institutions. Instead, he advocated for preserving monarchy, religion, and aristocracy as stabilizing forces.

Other conservatives, like Joseph de Maistre, took an even more rigid stance, believing that strong authority was necessary to prevent disorder. Throughout the 19th century, conservatism remained influential among European elites who resisted democratic and revolutionary movements.

Socialism and the critique of capitalism

The harsh realities of industrial capitalism—long hours, low wages, and child labor—sparked the rise of socialism. Early socialists like Robert Owen experimented with cooperative communities where workers shared resources and profits.

However, the most radical critique came from Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. In The Communist Manifesto (1848), they argued that capitalism was inherently exploitative and predicted its eventual collapse. Marx’s theory of class struggle claimed that workers (the proletariat) would eventually overthrow the capitalist system and establish a classless society.

While Marx’s ideas inspired revolutionary movements, other socialists sought change through democratic reforms. This division between revolutionary and reformist socialism would shape labor movements and political parties well into the 20th century.

Nationalism: the idea of the nation-state

Nationalism reshaped the political landscape of the 19th century by promoting the idea that people of shared culture, language, and history should form independent nations. Thinkers like Johann Gottfried Herder emphasized the importance of national identity in shaping political unity.

This ideology drove the unification of Germany and Italy, as well as independence movements in Greece, Poland, and Latin America. Figures like Giuseppe Mazzini saw nationalism as a force for democracy and self-determination.

However, nationalism also had a darker side. As the century progressed, it became tied to militarism and imperialism, with European powers using nationalist rhetoric to justify colonial expansion. This aggressive form of nationalism would later contribute to the conflicts of the 20th century.

Utilitarianism: the greatest good for the greatest number

Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill developed utilitarianism as a philosophy that judged actions based on their consequences. The core idea was simple: policies should maximize happiness and minimize suffering for the majority.

Bentham’s approach was highly practical, measuring pleasure and pain in quantitative terms. Mill later refined this by arguing that some pleasures (like intellectual pursuits) were more valuable than others (like mere physical enjoyment).

Utilitarianism influenced legal and social reforms, including prison improvements, education policies, and workers’ rights. Its emphasis on rational decision-making made it a key influence on democratic governance and public policy.

Anarchism: the rejection of state authority

Anarchism emerged as a radical challenge to both government and capitalism, advocating for a society without coercive institutions. Thinkers like Pierre-Joseph Proudhon argued that property ownership led to exploitation, famously declaring, “Property is theft!”

Mikhail Bakunin, a rival of Marx, believed that any centralized state—even a socialist one—would become oppressive. Instead, anarchists proposed decentralized, self-governing communities where people cooperated voluntarily.

Though anarchism never became a dominant political system, it inspired labor movements, anti-authoritarian uprisings, and later libertarian thought. Its critique of power structures remains influential in debates about freedom and governance.