Theories of Deviance

Introduction

Deviance is a concept in sociology that refers to behaviors, actions, or traits that violate societal norms and expectations. These norms can be formal, such as laws, or informal, such as cultural customs. The study of deviance seeks to understand why certain behaviors are labeled as deviant, who gets to define what is deviant, and how societies respond to deviance.

Sociologists have developed various theories to explain the origins, persistence, and consequences of deviant behavior. These theories can be broadly categorized into functionalist, conflict, symbolic interactionist, and other perspectives. Each theory offers a unique lens through which to examine deviance, providing insights into the social structures, power dynamics, and interactions that shape our understanding of what is considered “normal” or “deviant.”

Functionalist perspective on deviance

The functionalist perspective views society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote stability and order. From this viewpoint, deviance is not merely a disruption but also serves important functions for society. Émile Durkheim, a founding figure in sociology, argued that deviance is inevitable and even necessary for social cohesion.

He suggested that deviance clarifies moral boundaries, reinforces social norms, and can even lead to social change. For example, when a deviant act occurs, it often prompts public discussion and reaffirmation of societal values. Additionally, Durkheim introduced the concept of anomie, a state of normlessness that occurs when societal norms are unclear or conflicting, leading to higher rates of deviance.

Robert Merton expanded on Durkheim’s ideas with his strain theory, which posits that deviance arises when there is a disconnect between societal goals and the means available to achieve them. For instance, individuals who lack access to legitimate opportunities may turn to deviant means, such as crime, to attain success.

Conflict theory and deviance

Conflict theory, rooted in the works of Karl Marx, focuses on the power struggles between different groups in society. This perspective argues that deviance is a result of social inequality and the exploitation of marginalized groups by those in power.

According to conflict theorists, laws and norms are often created by the dominant class to maintain their privilege and control over others. For example, behaviors associated with poverty, such as theft or drug use, are more likely to be labeled as deviant, while corporate crimes or white-collar offenses may receive less scrutiny.

Conflict theorists also highlight how race, gender, and class intersect to shape perceptions of deviance. For instance, racial minorities and lower-income individuals are more likely to be criminalized for the same behaviors that might be overlooked in wealthier or white individuals. This perspective emphasizes that deviance is not an inherent quality of an act but rather a social construct influenced by power dynamics.

Symbolic interactionist perspective on deviance

Symbolic interactionism focuses on the meanings and interpretations that individuals attach to behaviors and interactions. This perspective emphasizes that deviance is not an objective reality but rather a label applied to certain actions or people.

Howard Becker’s labeling theory is a key concept within this framework. Becker argued that deviance is a consequence of external judgments and that individuals become deviant when they are labeled as such by society. For example, a teenager who is labeled a “troublemaker” by teachers and peers may internalize this identity and engage in further deviant behavior.

Edwin Lemert expanded on this idea by distinguishing between primary deviance (initial acts of deviance) and secondary deviance (deviance that results from the societal reaction to primary deviance). Symbolic interactionists also study how deviant subcultures form, where individuals who are labeled as deviant create their own norms and values in response to societal rejection.

Control theory and social bonds

Control theory, developed by Travis Hirschi, shifts the focus from why people engage in deviance to why most people do not. Hirschi argued that individuals are naturally inclined toward deviance, but social bonds prevent them from acting on these impulses. These bonds include attachment to family and friends, commitment to conventional goals, involvement in legitimate activities, and belief in societal norms.

When these bonds are weak or broken, individuals are more likely to engage in deviant behavior. For example, a teenager who feels disconnected from their family or school may be more prone to delinquency.

Control theory highlights the importance of socialization and social integration in maintaining conformity and reducing deviance. It also suggests that strengthening social bonds can be an effective strategy for preventing deviant behavior.

Differential association theory

Differential association theory, developed by Edwin H. Sutherland, focuses on the role of social interactions in shaping deviant behavior. According to this theory, individuals learn deviant behaviors, attitudes, and techniques through their interactions with others, particularly within intimate groups such as family or peer networks.

The frequency, duration, and intensity of these interactions determine the likelihood of adopting deviant behaviors. For example, a young person who grows up in a community where drug use is common and normalized is more likely to engage in drug use themselves.

Sutherland also emphasized that individuals learn not only the methods of deviance but also the rationalizations and justifications for it. This theory underscores the importance of social environment and peer influence in the development of deviant behavior.

Cultural deviance theory

Cultural deviance theory combines elements of strain theory and social disorganization theory to explain how certain subcultures develop their own norms and values that may conflict with those of mainstream society.

According to this perspective, deviance arises when individuals conform to the norms of their subculture, which may encourage behaviors deemed deviant by the larger society. For example, in some impoverished neighborhoods, economic deprivation and social isolation can lead to the creation of subcultures that value toughness, street smarts, and defiance of authority. These subcultural norms may conflict with mainstream values, resulting in higher rates of crime and deviance.

Cultural deviance theory highlights the role of cultural context in shaping behavior and challenges the notion that deviance is solely a result of individual pathology. It also emphasizes the need to address structural inequalities and social conditions that give rise to deviant subcultures.